Saturday, December 17, 2011
Tuesday, March 1, 2011
PRE-SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT PERIOD
Pre-scientific management era refers to the period immediately preceding the Scientific Management Movement started by F.W. Taylor and his associates. During the pre-scientific management era, many pioneers made significant contributions to management thought. Prominent among them were Robert Owen, Charles Babbage, Henry Vemun Poor, Henry Robinson Towne, James Watt, Mathew Boulton
3.1.1. Robert Owen (1771-1858)
Robert Owen managed a group of textile mills in Lanark (Scotland) during 1800-1828. He carried out experiments and introduced many social reforms. He believed that workers' performance was influenced by the total environment in which they worked. He said employees are vital machines. Their maintenance was as necessary as that of inanimate machines. He believed that workers should work because they want to work and not because they have to work. Throughout his life, Owen worked for the building up of a spirit of co-operation between the workers and the management. He believed and practised the idea that workers should be treated as human beings. Owen suggested that investment in human resources was more profitable than investment in machinery and other physical resources. He introduced new ideas of human relations, e.g., shorter working hours, housing facilities, education of children, provision of canteen, rest pauses, training of workers in hygiene, etc. He suggested that proper treatment of workers pays dividends
3.1.1. Robert Owen (1771-1858)
Robert Owen managed a group of textile mills in Lanark (Scotland) during 1800-1828. He carried out experiments and introduced many social reforms. He believed that workers' performance was influenced by the total environment in which they worked. He said employees are vital machines. Their maintenance was as necessary as that of inanimate machines. He believed that workers should work because they want to work and not because they have to work. Throughout his life, Owen worked for the building up of a spirit of co-operation between the workers and the management. He believed and practised the idea that workers should be treated as human beings. Owen suggested that investment in human resources was more profitable than investment in machinery and other physical resources. He introduced new ideas of human relations, e.g., shorter working hours, housing facilities, education of children, provision of canteen, rest pauses, training of workers in hygiene, etc. He suggested that proper treatment of workers pays dividends
Tuesday, February 1, 2011
MANAGEMENT
Management has been practised in some form or the other since the dawn of civilisation. Ever since human beings began to live and work together in groups, techniques of organisation and management were evolved. The Summerian Civilization dating back to 300 B.C. had an efficient system of tax collection. The pyramids of Egypt, the Chinese Civil Service, the Roman Catholic Church, and military organisation offer good examples of the application of management in ancient times. Kautilya's Arthashastra, the Bhagwat Gita, the Holy Bible and other epics contain references to the management of public affairs.
The early contributions to management thought came from Roman Catholic Church, military organisations and Cameralists. The principles of hierarchy of authority, territorial organisation, functional specialisation, etc. developed in the Roman Catholic Church. Military organisations contributed division of work, secular principle and staff concept. The Cameralists were a group of Austrian and German public administrators and intellectuals from sixteen to eighteen centuries. They stressed systematic administration of the State affairs. They formulated the principle of functional specialisation, proper selection and training of administrators, work simplification, effective control, etc.
Thus, the art of management has ancient origins. However, the science of management developed largely after the Industrial Revolution which established the factory system. Scienfitic management movement laid the foundations of management as a science. Prior to this movement several early pioneers like Robert Owen, Charles Babbage, Henry R. Towne, Henry V. Poor, James Watt Jr., Matthew R. Boulton and Charles Dupin made significant contributions during the pre-scientific management era.
The early contributions to management thought came from Roman Catholic Church, military organisations and Cameralists. The principles of hierarchy of authority, territorial organisation, functional specialisation, etc. developed in the Roman Catholic Church. Military organisations contributed division of work, secular principle and staff concept. The Cameralists were a group of Austrian and German public administrators and intellectuals from sixteen to eighteen centuries. They stressed systematic administration of the State affairs. They formulated the principle of functional specialisation, proper selection and training of administrators, work simplification, effective control, etc.
Thus, the art of management has ancient origins. However, the science of management developed largely after the Industrial Revolution which established the factory system. Scienfitic management movement laid the foundations of management as a science. Prior to this movement several early pioneers like Robert Owen, Charles Babbage, Henry R. Towne, Henry V. Poor, James Watt Jr., Matthew R. Boulton and Charles Dupin made significant contributions during the pre-scientific management era.
Monday, January 10, 2011
RESPONSIBILITIES OF A SUPERVISOR
The responsibilities of a supervisor are quite onerous. He is expected: 1. To schedule work so as to ensure an even and steady flow; 2. To assign work to different individuals according to their abilities; 3. To provide proper working conditions, materials, tools and other facilities
to workers; 4. To issue orders and instructions to the subordinates; 5. To prescribe work methods and procedures;
6. To guide, train and inspire workers in the efficient performance of work
7. To enforce rules and regulations so as to maintain discipline;
8. To communicate managerial policies and decisions to workers;
9. To convey worker's suggestion and grievances to management; and
10. To review quantity and quality of performance and to take corrective action, if necessary.
to workers; 4. To issue orders and instructions to the subordinates; 5. To prescribe work methods and procedures;
6. To guide, train and inspire workers in the efficient performance of work
7. To enforce rules and regulations so as to maintain discipline;
8. To communicate managerial policies and decisions to workers;
9. To convey worker's suggestion and grievances to management; and
10. To review quantity and quality of performance and to take corrective action, if necessary.
Saturday, January 8, 2011
MEANING OF SUPERVISION
Supervision is an important element of directing function of management. Managers at all levels perform the supervisory function. It is not the responsibility of first line supervisors only. At the top level of an organisation, the proportion of direct supervision is comparatively less than at middle and operating levels level managers supervise the work of departmental heads who in turn supervise operating executives. At each level, supervision is required to translate plans and programmes into action. At the lowest level managers have the primary duty for supervision and, therefore, they are known as supervisors
Supervision means overseeing the subordinates at work to ensure that they are working according to plans and policies of the organisation. It involves direct face-to-face contact between the supervisor and his subordinates. The aim of supervision is to ensure that subordinates work efficiently and effectively to accomplish the organisational objectives. It involves inter-personal relationship in day-to-day work. A supervisor is known by different names, e.g., foreman, overseer, superintendent, section officer, etc He constitutes the lowest rung of the management ladder and is in charge of workers. But the first-line supervisor occupies a strategic position in the hierarchy of an organisation. Supervisor is the vital link between workers and management. He is representative of management and a key figure from the viewpoint of workers. He is directly responsible for issuing orders and instructions, laying down work methods and procedures and initiating action. He gets the managerial plans translated into action, spots deviations from plans and takes the necessary corrective action. He is primarily responsible for the successful performance of work on the operating level. The position of a supervisor is very critical. He is known as the 'man in the middle' because he represents both management and workers
Supervision means overseeing the subordinates at work to ensure that they are working according to plans and policies of the organisation. It involves direct face-to-face contact between the supervisor and his subordinates. The aim of supervision is to ensure that subordinates work efficiently and effectively to accomplish the organisational objectives. It involves inter-personal relationship in day-to-day work. A supervisor is known by different names, e.g., foreman, overseer, superintendent, section officer, etc He constitutes the lowest rung of the management ladder and is in charge of workers. But the first-line supervisor occupies a strategic position in the hierarchy of an organisation. Supervisor is the vital link between workers and management. He is representative of management and a key figure from the viewpoint of workers. He is directly responsible for issuing orders and instructions, laying down work methods and procedures and initiating action. He gets the managerial plans translated into action, spots deviations from plans and takes the necessary corrective action. He is primarily responsible for the successful performance of work on the operating level. The position of a supervisor is very critical. He is known as the 'man in the middle' because he represents both management and workers
Wednesday, January 5, 2011
NATURE OF COMMUNICATION
Communication is characterised by the following salient features:
1. Communication is essentially a two-way process, involving a sender and a receiver. One person alone cannot communicate. There is no communication until the message is received and understood by the receiver. It takes two to complete communication.
2. The message should be interpreted by the receiver in the same sense as intended by the sender. The basic purpose of communication is to create mutual understanding. Therefore, communication is complete only when the message is correctly understood and the response to it becomes known to the sender.
3. The message must have substance. It should contain information or ideas which are of interest to the receiver. It is meaningless to talk about book to a person who cannot read.
4. Communication is a pervasive function. It is used by managers at all levels of organisation and in all areas of operations.
5. Communication is an on-going process. There must be continuous inter¬change of messages between people working together in a group.
6. Communication does not mean mere oral or written messages. It includes
everything
7. Speaking, writing, acting and listening, reading, observing or watching are
the fundamental aspects of communication
1. Communication is essentially a two-way process, involving a sender and a receiver. One person alone cannot communicate. There is no communication until the message is received and understood by the receiver. It takes two to complete communication.
2. The message should be interpreted by the receiver in the same sense as intended by the sender. The basic purpose of communication is to create mutual understanding. Therefore, communication is complete only when the message is correctly understood and the response to it becomes known to the sender.
3. The message must have substance. It should contain information or ideas which are of interest to the receiver. It is meaningless to talk about book to a person who cannot read.
4. Communication is a pervasive function. It is used by managers at all levels of organisation and in all areas of operations.
5. Communication is an on-going process. There must be continuous inter¬change of messages between people working together in a group.
6. Communication does not mean mere oral or written messages. It includes
everything
7. Speaking, writing, acting and listening, reading, observing or watching are
the fundamental aspects of communication
Tuesday, January 4, 2011
MEANING OF COMMUNICATION
The word 'communication' has been derived from the Latin word 'communis' which implies common. Thus, communication may be defined as interchange of thought and information to bring about mutual understanding. It involves exchange or sharing of ideas, opinions and facts between two or more persons. It is the process of conveying written, verbal or gestural messages from one person to another so that they are understood. According to Theo Haimann, "Communication is the process of passing information and understanding from one person to another.... It is the process of imparting ideas and making oneself understood by other."
Monday, January 3, 2011
MEDIA OR METHODS OF COMMUNICATION
There are three important types of communication media:
1. Oral communication
2. Written communication
3. Gestural communication
Each of these media may be used either exclusively or in combination with other media. Generally two or more of these media are used simultaneously to supplement each other.
OR AL COMMUNICATION
Oral communication involves exchange of messages through spoken words. It may take place (i) by face-to-face contacts, and (it) through mechanical devices like telephone. Face-to-face conversation is the most natural way of transmitting the message. It is very speedy and helps to interchange feelings and attitudes. Face-to-face communication may take place through lectures, group discussions, interviews, committee meetings, broadcast and social gatherings. Such communication enables the speaker to secure greater understanding and co-operation. The listener can make on-the-spot queries to clear his doubts, if any. These days mechanical devices like alarm bell, telephone, signals, intercom system, dictaphone, etc., are becoming increasingly popular for communicating messages.
1. Oral communication
2. Written communication
3. Gestural communication
Each of these media may be used either exclusively or in combination with other media. Generally two or more of these media are used simultaneously to supplement each other.
OR AL COMMUNICATION
Oral communication involves exchange of messages through spoken words. It may take place (i) by face-to-face contacts, and (it) through mechanical devices like telephone. Face-to-face conversation is the most natural way of transmitting the message. It is very speedy and helps to interchange feelings and attitudes. Face-to-face communication may take place through lectures, group discussions, interviews, committee meetings, broadcast and social gatherings. Such communication enables the speaker to secure greater understanding and co-operation. The listener can make on-the-spot queries to clear his doubts, if any. These days mechanical devices like alarm bell, telephone, signals, intercom system, dictaphone, etc., are becoming increasingly popular for communicating messages.
Sunday, January 2, 2011
HOW TO DEAL WITH RUMOUR?
Rumour is grapevine information which is communicated without the presence of secure standards of evidence. It is the injudicious and untrue part of the grapevine. It is generally incorrect and, therefore, an undesirable feature of the grapevine. Rumour originates due to several causes. It frequently arises due to employees anxiety and insecurity caused by poor formal communication. It may also be used to apply pressure upon management. Sometimes, rumour arises due to plain maliciousness. Very often, rumour is a product of interest and ambiguity. If a person has no interest or there is no ambiguity in a situation, there is no cause for rumour. Rumour tends to change from person to person because it depends upon interest and ambiguity perceived by the listener. Depending upon the interest, each person adds or subtracts something from the original message through the process of elaboration and assimilation. Thus, the rumour gets twisted and distorted as it passes from one mouth to another.
A major outbreak of rumour can be very dangerous and, therefore, management must deal with it effectively. The best approach in dealing with a rumour is to identify and remove its causes rather than try to kill it after it has already begun. Management must supply the true facts in time preferably through face-to-face conversation. The message should contain facts and not opinions. It should not repeat the rumour. Because when a rumour is repeated, people may assume that it has been confirmed. Management may also take the help of union leaders in overcoming the rumour.
A major outbreak of rumour can be very dangerous and, therefore, management must deal with it effectively. The best approach in dealing with a rumour is to identify and remove its causes rather than try to kill it after it has already begun. Management must supply the true facts in time preferably through face-to-face conversation. The message should contain facts and not opinions. It should not repeat the rumour. Because when a rumour is repeated, people may assume that it has been confirmed. Management may also take the help of union leaders in overcoming the rumour.
Saturday, January 1, 2011
NATURE OF LEADERSHIP
An analysis of the above definitions reveals the following characteristics of leadership:
1. Leadership is a process of influence exercised by the leader on group members. A person is said to have an influence on others when they are willing to carry out his wishes and accept his direction. A successful leader is one who influences the behaviour, attitudes and beliefs of his followers.
2. Leadership is a function of stimulation. It involves motivating people to strive willingly towards organisational goals. A successful leader is able to subordinate the individual interest to the common interest of the group. He creates goal congruency so that people enthusiastically work to attain the goals.
3. Leadership gives a feeling of contributing to common objectives. A successful
leader creates an environment under which every person feels that he is contributing
to the attainment of organisational objectives. He recognises the efforts and activities
of every individual in the organisation.
4. Leadership is related to a particular situation at a given point of time and under a specific set of circumstances. This implies that leadership style will differ from one situation to another.
5. Leadership is a shared experience. A good leader shares ideas, experience and credit with his followers. He lets the subordinates to influence his behaviour so that they are satisfied with the type of leadership provided.
6. Leadership is not headship or bossism. Headship implies exercise of formal
authority and control whereas leadership involves use of persuasion to influence
behaviour.
7. Leadership is an ongoing activity in an organisation.
8. Leadership implies existence of followers. By their willingness to be influenced
by the leader, subordinates formalise the leader's authority and make the leadership
process possible.
1. Leadership is a process of influence exercised by the leader on group members. A person is said to have an influence on others when they are willing to carry out his wishes and accept his direction. A successful leader is one who influences the behaviour, attitudes and beliefs of his followers.
2. Leadership is a function of stimulation. It involves motivating people to strive willingly towards organisational goals. A successful leader is able to subordinate the individual interest to the common interest of the group. He creates goal congruency so that people enthusiastically work to attain the goals.
3. Leadership gives a feeling of contributing to common objectives. A successful
leader creates an environment under which every person feels that he is contributing
to the attainment of organisational objectives. He recognises the efforts and activities
of every individual in the organisation.
4. Leadership is related to a particular situation at a given point of time and under a specific set of circumstances. This implies that leadership style will differ from one situation to another.
5. Leadership is a shared experience. A good leader shares ideas, experience and credit with his followers. He lets the subordinates to influence his behaviour so that they are satisfied with the type of leadership provided.
6. Leadership is not headship or bossism. Headship implies exercise of formal
authority and control whereas leadership involves use of persuasion to influence
behaviour.
7. Leadership is an ongoing activity in an organisation.
8. Leadership implies existence of followers. By their willingness to be influenced
by the leader, subordinates formalise the leader's authority and make the leadership
process possible.
Friday, December 31, 2010
LEADER
MEANING
A leader is one who guides and directs other people .He gives the efforts of his followers a direction and purpose by influencing their behaviour. Therefore, leadership may be defined as the quality of behaviour of a person by which he is able to persuade others to seek the goals enthusiastically.Its the force which binds a group together and motivates it towards certain goals. According to George R. Terry "Leadership is the activity of influencing people to strive willingly for mutual objectives."
Koontz and O'Donnell have defined leadership as "the ability of a manager to induce subordinates to work with confidence and zeal." In the words of Robert Appleby Leadership is a means of direction. It is the ability of management to induce subordinates to work towards group ideals with confidence and keenness." Simply stated, leadership is a process involving two or more people in which one attempts to influence the other's behaviour towards the accomplishment of some goals.
A leader is one who guides and directs other people .He gives the efforts of his followers a direction and purpose by influencing their behaviour. Therefore, leadership may be defined as the quality of behaviour of a person by which he is able to persuade others to seek the goals enthusiastically.Its the force which binds a group together and motivates it towards certain goals. According to George R. Terry "Leadership is the activity of influencing people to strive willingly for mutual objectives."
Koontz and O'Donnell have defined leadership as "the ability of a manager to induce subordinates to work with confidence and zeal." In the words of Robert Appleby Leadership is a means of direction. It is the ability of management to induce subordinates to work towards group ideals with confidence and keenness." Simply stated, leadership is a process involving two or more people in which one attempts to influence the other's behaviour towards the accomplishment of some goals.
Thursday, December 30, 2010
OVERALL CONTROL CRITERIA
Most of the control techniques are designed to regulate specific aspects like costs, profits, etc. Such piecemeal control measures are not sufficient for a business enterprise. Control of overall peormance is required to judge the total effectiveness of an organisation. Such control evaluates management's total efforts. Moreover, control of overall performance helps to overcome weaknesses of partial control measures. According to George R. Terry, "Controlling overall performance is advantageous that it encourages a manager to see the forest not simply the trees. The overall point of view is encouraged." Control of overall performance is all the more important in the case of large enterprises which have several autonomous units located in different parts of the country.
Some of the important tools of controlling overall performance are as follows: (i) Budget summaries which are a resume of all individual budgets and which
present an overall picture of the enterprise. (it) Written and comparative reports from different departments. (iii)Inter-firm comparisons. (iv) Internal audit which involves continuous examination of operations by the
managers of the enterprise. (v) Ratio analysis indicating trends in the profitability, liquidity and solvency
of business as a whole. (vi) Value analysis used to judge relationship between cost and function of any
product, material or service. (vii) Control through key result areas, e.g., market position, productivity, product leadership, executive development, etc.
28.8. RETURN ON INVESTMENT CONTROL
Profitability is an important measure of the efficiency of a business enterprise. Profit in relation to the size of investment is popularly known as return on investment (ROI). This approach has been an important part of the control system of Du Pont Company of the U.S.A. since 1919. Since its successful application in Du Pont, several companies have adopted it as the key measure of their control system.
As a control standard, ROI recognises the fundamental fact that capital is a critical factor in business and economic progress. The ROI control system can be seen from Fig. 28.2. The rate of return is calculated by dividing net profit by total investment. Under the Du Pont system, investment consists of total fixed and current assets without subtracting liabilities and reserves. The argument given is that such deduction would lead to fluctuations in operating investments because liabilities and reserves fluctuate. Such fluctuations will distort the rate of return and make it meaningless. In many companies, investment is taken after deducting depreciation on the plea that depreciation write-offs are reinvested in business.
Some of the important tools of controlling overall performance are as follows: (i) Budget summaries which are a resume of all individual budgets and which
present an overall picture of the enterprise. (it) Written and comparative reports from different departments. (iii)Inter-firm comparisons. (iv) Internal audit which involves continuous examination of operations by the
managers of the enterprise. (v) Ratio analysis indicating trends in the profitability, liquidity and solvency
of business as a whole. (vi) Value analysis used to judge relationship between cost and function of any
product, material or service. (vii) Control through key result areas, e.g., market position, productivity, product leadership, executive development, etc.
28.8. RETURN ON INVESTMENT CONTROL
Profitability is an important measure of the efficiency of a business enterprise. Profit in relation to the size of investment is popularly known as return on investment (ROI). This approach has been an important part of the control system of Du Pont Company of the U.S.A. since 1919. Since its successful application in Du Pont, several companies have adopted it as the key measure of their control system.
As a control standard, ROI recognises the fundamental fact that capital is a critical factor in business and economic progress. The ROI control system can be seen from Fig. 28.2. The rate of return is calculated by dividing net profit by total investment. Under the Du Pont system, investment consists of total fixed and current assets without subtracting liabilities and reserves. The argument given is that such deduction would lead to fluctuations in operating investments because liabilities and reserves fluctuate. Such fluctuations will distort the rate of return and make it meaningless. In many companies, investment is taken after deducting depreciation on the plea that depreciation write-offs are reinvested in business.
Wednesday, December 29, 2010
. PRINCIPLES OF DIRECTING
Direction is a complex function as it deals with people whose behaviour is unpredictable. Effective direction is an art which a manager can learn and perfect through practice. However, managers can follow the following principles while directing their subordinates:
1 Harmony o objectives: Individuals join the organisation to satisfy their physiological and psychological needs. They are expected to work for the achievement of organisational objectives. They will perform their tasks better if they feel that it will satisfy their personal goals. Therefore, management should reconcile the personal goals of employees with the organisational goals.
2. Maximum individual contribution. Organisational objectives are achieved at the optimum level when every individual in the organisation makes maximum contribution towards them. Managers should, therefore, try to elicit maximum possible contribution from each subordinate.
3.Unity of command. A subordinate should get orders and instructions from one superior only. If he is made accountable to two bosses simultaneously, there will be confusion, conflict, disorder and indiscipline in the organisation. Therefore, every subordinate should be asked to report to only one manager.
4.Appropriate techniques. The managers should use correct direction techniques to ensure efficiency of direction. The techniques used should be suitable to the superior, the subordinates and the situation.
5 Direct Supervision. Direction becomes more effective when there is a direct personal contact between a superior and his subordinates. Such direct contact improves the morale and commitment of employees. Therefore, wherever possible direct supervision should be used.
„_ 6. Strategic use of informal organisation. Management should try to understand and make use of informal groups to strengthen formal or official relationships. This will improve the effectiveness of direction.
7 Managerial communication. A good system of communication between the superior and his subordinates helps to improve mutual understanding. Upward communication enables a manager to understand the subordinates and gives an opportunity to the subordinates to express their feelings.
8 Comprehension. Communication of orders and instructions is not sufficient. Managers should ensure that subordinates correctly understand what they are to do and how and when they are to do. This will avoid unnecessary queries and explanations.
9 Effective leadership. Managers should act as leaders so that they can influence the activities of their subordinates without dissatisfying them. As leaders, they should guide and counsel subordinates in their personal problems too. In this way, they can win the confidence and trust of their subordinates.
10. Principle of follow through. Directing is a continuous process. Therefore, after issuing orders and instructions, a manager should find out whether the subordinates are working properly and what problems they are facing. He should modify, if necessary, his orders in the light of these findings.
1 Harmony o objectives: Individuals join the organisation to satisfy their physiological and psychological needs. They are expected to work for the achievement of organisational objectives. They will perform their tasks better if they feel that it will satisfy their personal goals. Therefore, management should reconcile the personal goals of employees with the organisational goals.
2. Maximum individual contribution. Organisational objectives are achieved at the optimum level when every individual in the organisation makes maximum contribution towards them. Managers should, therefore, try to elicit maximum possible contribution from each subordinate.
3.Unity of command. A subordinate should get orders and instructions from one superior only. If he is made accountable to two bosses simultaneously, there will be confusion, conflict, disorder and indiscipline in the organisation. Therefore, every subordinate should be asked to report to only one manager.
4.Appropriate techniques. The managers should use correct direction techniques to ensure efficiency of direction. The techniques used should be suitable to the superior, the subordinates and the situation.
5 Direct Supervision. Direction becomes more effective when there is a direct personal contact between a superior and his subordinates. Such direct contact improves the morale and commitment of employees. Therefore, wherever possible direct supervision should be used.
„_ 6. Strategic use of informal organisation. Management should try to understand and make use of informal groups to strengthen formal or official relationships. This will improve the effectiveness of direction.
7 Managerial communication. A good system of communication between the superior and his subordinates helps to improve mutual understanding. Upward communication enables a manager to understand the subordinates and gives an opportunity to the subordinates to express their feelings.
8 Comprehension. Communication of orders and instructions is not sufficient. Managers should ensure that subordinates correctly understand what they are to do and how and when they are to do. This will avoid unnecessary queries and explanations.
9 Effective leadership. Managers should act as leaders so that they can influence the activities of their subordinates without dissatisfying them. As leaders, they should guide and counsel subordinates in their personal problems too. In this way, they can win the confidence and trust of their subordinates.
10. Principle of follow through. Directing is a continuous process. Therefore, after issuing orders and instructions, a manager should find out whether the subordinates are working properly and what problems they are facing. He should modify, if necessary, his orders in the light of these findings.
Tuesday, December 28, 2010
PROCESS OF DELEGATION
The process of delegation involves the following steps:
1. Determination of results expected. First of all, a manager has to define the results he wants to obtain from his subordinates for the achievement of organisational objectives.
2. Assignment of duties. The manager then assigns specific duties or tasks to each subordinate. He must clearly define the function of each subordinate. While assigning duties and responsibilities, he must ensure that the subordinates understand and accept their duties. Duties should be assigned according to the qualifications, experience and aptitude of the subordinates.
3. Granting of authority. Assignment of duties is meaningless unless adequate authority is given to subordinates. They can discharge their responsibilities without adequate authority. By granting authority, subordinates are permitted to use resources, to take decisions and to exercise discretion.
1. Determination of results expected. First of all, a manager has to define the results he wants to obtain from his subordinates for the achievement of organisational objectives.
2. Assignment of duties. The manager then assigns specific duties or tasks to each subordinate. He must clearly define the function of each subordinate. While assigning duties and responsibilities, he must ensure that the subordinates understand and accept their duties. Duties should be assigned according to the qualifications, experience and aptitude of the subordinates.
3. Granting of authority. Assignment of duties is meaningless unless adequate authority is given to subordinates. They can discharge their responsibilities without adequate authority. By granting authority, subordinates are permitted to use resources, to take decisions and to exercise discretion.
Monday, December 27, 2010
TYPES OF DELEGATION
Delegation may be of the following types:
1. General or Specific Delegation. In general delegation, the subordinate is granted
authority to perform all the functions in his department or division. However, the
subordinate exercises this authority under the overall guidance and control of the
superior.
Under specific delegation, a person is given authority regarding specific function or functions. For example, a sales person may be given the authority to collect payments from debtors. Thus, specific delegation is functional in nature. Specific delegation is precise and the subordinate clearly understands what he is expected to do. But it may create inflexibility in the organisation.
2. Formal or Informal Delegation. When authority is delegated as per the
organisation structure, it is called formal delegation. Such delegation is effective
because it leaves no option to the subordinate but to obey the commands of the
superior. For example, a sales person may be granted authority to grant discount
upto 5 per cent on the list price to customers buying goods worth Rs. 5,000 or
more.
Informal delegation takes place when an individual or a group agrees to work under the direction of an informal leader. Need for informal delegation arises due to procedural delays and red tape. When people want to short circuit the formal procedures so as to perform the task quickly, they resort to informal delegation.
3. Written or Oral Delegation. Delegation made by written orders and instructions is known as written delegation. Unwritten or oral delegation is based in custom and conventions.
4. Downward and Sideward Delegation. Downward delegation occurs when a superior assigns duties and grants authority to his immediate subordinate. This is the most common type of delegation.
Sideward delegation takes place when a subordinate assigns some of his duties and authority to another subordinate of the same rank
1. General or Specific Delegation. In general delegation, the subordinate is granted
authority to perform all the functions in his department or division. However, the
subordinate exercises this authority under the overall guidance and control of the
superior.
Under specific delegation, a person is given authority regarding specific function or functions. For example, a sales person may be given the authority to collect payments from debtors. Thus, specific delegation is functional in nature. Specific delegation is precise and the subordinate clearly understands what he is expected to do. But it may create inflexibility in the organisation.
2. Formal or Informal Delegation. When authority is delegated as per the
organisation structure, it is called formal delegation. Such delegation is effective
because it leaves no option to the subordinate but to obey the commands of the
superior. For example, a sales person may be granted authority to grant discount
upto 5 per cent on the list price to customers buying goods worth Rs. 5,000 or
more.
Informal delegation takes place when an individual or a group agrees to work under the direction of an informal leader. Need for informal delegation arises due to procedural delays and red tape. When people want to short circuit the formal procedures so as to perform the task quickly, they resort to informal delegation.
3. Written or Oral Delegation. Delegation made by written orders and instructions is known as written delegation. Unwritten or oral delegation is based in custom and conventions.
4. Downward and Sideward Delegation. Downward delegation occurs when a superior assigns duties and grants authority to his immediate subordinate. This is the most common type of delegation.
Sideward delegation takes place when a subordinate assigns some of his duties and authority to another subordinate of the same rank
OBSTACLES TO EFFECTIVE APPRAISAL
The main barriers to effective performance appraisal are as follows:
Faulty Assumptions
Very often performance appraisal is not effective due to unrealistic assumptions on the part of both superiors and subordinates. Some of these assumptions are given below:
(a) The assumption that managers desire to make accurate and fair appraisals is not always true. Many a time they want to avoid formal appraisal. They assume that personal opinion is better than formal appraisal.
(b) Some managers consider the appraisal system as perfect and expect too much from it. They rely too much on it. In reality no appraisal system is absolutely perfect.
(c) The assumption that subordinates want to know frankly where do they stand and what their superiors think about them are not valid. In fact subordinates resist to be appraised and their reaction against appraisal is often strong.
20.7.2. Psychological Barriers
The effectiveness of appraisal depends upon the psychological characteristics of managers to a great extent. Managers' feeling of insecurity, their being excessively modest or sceptical, the tendency to consider appraisal as extra burden, disliking or resentment to subordinates, etc., are the principal psychological characteristics that inhibit appraisal. These factors make the appraisal biased or subjective thereby defeating the basic purpose of appraisal.
20.7.3. Technical Pitfalls
The main technical difficulties in performance appraisal are as follows: (a) Lack of clear-cut or unambiguous criteria for appraisal. (V) Errors and bias in appraisal due to human weakness, e.g., halo effect, constant error, central tendency, liking or disliking for people, etc.
20.8. ESSENTIALS OF EFFECTIVE APPRAISAL
The following steps may be taken to make performance appraisal accurate, objective and reliable:
(1) Before an appraisal system is established, its objectives should be defined clearly. The specific objectives may be pay increase, promotion, transfer, training and development. The objectives will reveal whether emphasis should be placed on measuring performance on the current job or on potential for higher jobs.
(2) The raters should be carefully selected and trained. They must be familiar with the job and the person to be rated. Two independent persons (one immediate supervisor and the other staff expert) may appraise each employee and their ratings may be averaged. This will help to reduce bias and subjectivity in appraisal.
Faulty Assumptions
Very often performance appraisal is not effective due to unrealistic assumptions on the part of both superiors and subordinates. Some of these assumptions are given below:
(a) The assumption that managers desire to make accurate and fair appraisals is not always true. Many a time they want to avoid formal appraisal. They assume that personal opinion is better than formal appraisal.
(b) Some managers consider the appraisal system as perfect and expect too much from it. They rely too much on it. In reality no appraisal system is absolutely perfect.
(c) The assumption that subordinates want to know frankly where do they stand and what their superiors think about them are not valid. In fact subordinates resist to be appraised and their reaction against appraisal is often strong.
20.7.2. Psychological Barriers
The effectiveness of appraisal depends upon the psychological characteristics of managers to a great extent. Managers' feeling of insecurity, their being excessively modest or sceptical, the tendency to consider appraisal as extra burden, disliking or resentment to subordinates, etc., are the principal psychological characteristics that inhibit appraisal. These factors make the appraisal biased or subjective thereby defeating the basic purpose of appraisal.
20.7.3. Technical Pitfalls
The main technical difficulties in performance appraisal are as follows: (a) Lack of clear-cut or unambiguous criteria for appraisal. (V) Errors and bias in appraisal due to human weakness, e.g., halo effect, constant error, central tendency, liking or disliking for people, etc.
20.8. ESSENTIALS OF EFFECTIVE APPRAISAL
The following steps may be taken to make performance appraisal accurate, objective and reliable:
(1) Before an appraisal system is established, its objectives should be defined clearly. The specific objectives may be pay increase, promotion, transfer, training and development. The objectives will reveal whether emphasis should be placed on measuring performance on the current job or on potential for higher jobs.
(2) The raters should be carefully selected and trained. They must be familiar with the job and the person to be rated. Two independent persons (one immediate supervisor and the other staff expert) may appraise each employee and their ratings may be averaged. This will help to reduce bias and subjectivity in appraisal.
STEPS IN THE PROCESS OF PLANNING
There is no standard planning process. Each enterprise has to develop its own modus operandi for planning depending on its size, nature and environment. However, the main steps in planning process are as follows:
1. Analysing the Environment The first step in planning is a thorough analysis of the external and internal environment of the enterprise. Analysis of external environment will help to identify the opportunities and constraints for the enterprise. To be effective, planning must enable the organisation to adapt itself to the environmental changes (market conditions, government policies, technological developments, cultural norms, etc.). Therefore, managers must carefully analyse and interpret the complex environmental forces. It is necessary to collect and analyse relevant information as the quality of information determines the quality of planning. Analysis of the internal environment (resources and requirement will help to identify the strengths and weaknesses of the enterprise.
2. Establishing Objectives. Plans are formulated to achieve certain objectives. Therefore, establishment of organisational objectives is an important step in planning. The organisational objectives should be established in the light of perceived opportunities and resources of the organisation. They should be clearly specified and measurable as far as possible. They should be spelled in key areas of operations and for different divisions and departments.
3. Determining Planning Premises. Planning is done for future which is uncertain. Therefore, certain assumptions are made in preparing plans. These assumptions or conditions underlying planning should be clearly defined through scientific forecasting of future events. Planning premises are the limitations that lay down the boundary for planning.
Planning premises can be of several types. Controllable or internal premises are under the control of management, e.g., resources, techniques and policies of the enterprise. On the other hand, uncontrollable or external premises are beyond the control of the enterprise. These relate to rate of population growth, general economic conditions, government policies, political situation, etc.
4. Developing Alternative Courses of Action. There can be several ways of achieving the same objectives. The various available alternatives should be identified. For example, in order to increase sales an enterprise may intensify sales efforts, explore new markets or develop new products. In order to develop all possible alternatives, a manager must have imagination, skill and experience.
5. Evaluating Alternatives. The various alternatives are compared and weighed in the light of objectives and premises. Each alternative has its merits and demerits but all alternatives cannot be equally appropriate or practicable. Each alternative should be closely examined to determine its suitability. Several statistical and mathematical techniques are used to evaluate alternative courses of action.
6. Selecting the Best Course. After evaluating the various alternatives, the most appropriate alternative is selected. This is the point at which the plan is adopted. Sometimes, the evaluation may suggest that more than one alternative is good. In such a case, a manager may choose several alternatives and combine them in action.
1. Analysing the Environment The first step in planning is a thorough analysis of the external and internal environment of the enterprise. Analysis of external environment will help to identify the opportunities and constraints for the enterprise. To be effective, planning must enable the organisation to adapt itself to the environmental changes (market conditions, government policies, technological developments, cultural norms, etc.). Therefore, managers must carefully analyse and interpret the complex environmental forces. It is necessary to collect and analyse relevant information as the quality of information determines the quality of planning. Analysis of the internal environment (resources and requirement will help to identify the strengths and weaknesses of the enterprise.
2. Establishing Objectives. Plans are formulated to achieve certain objectives. Therefore, establishment of organisational objectives is an important step in planning. The organisational objectives should be established in the light of perceived opportunities and resources of the organisation. They should be clearly specified and measurable as far as possible. They should be spelled in key areas of operations and for different divisions and departments.
3. Determining Planning Premises. Planning is done for future which is uncertain. Therefore, certain assumptions are made in preparing plans. These assumptions or conditions underlying planning should be clearly defined through scientific forecasting of future events. Planning premises are the limitations that lay down the boundary for planning.
Planning premises can be of several types. Controllable or internal premises are under the control of management, e.g., resources, techniques and policies of the enterprise. On the other hand, uncontrollable or external premises are beyond the control of the enterprise. These relate to rate of population growth, general economic conditions, government policies, political situation, etc.
4. Developing Alternative Courses of Action. There can be several ways of achieving the same objectives. The various available alternatives should be identified. For example, in order to increase sales an enterprise may intensify sales efforts, explore new markets or develop new products. In order to develop all possible alternatives, a manager must have imagination, skill and experience.
5. Evaluating Alternatives. The various alternatives are compared and weighed in the light of objectives and premises. Each alternative has its merits and demerits but all alternatives cannot be equally appropriate or practicable. Each alternative should be closely examined to determine its suitability. Several statistical and mathematical techniques are used to evaluate alternative courses of action.
6. Selecting the Best Course. After evaluating the various alternatives, the most appropriate alternative is selected. This is the point at which the plan is adopted. Sometimes, the evaluation may suggest that more than one alternative is good. In such a case, a manager may choose several alternatives and combine them in action.
Thursday, December 2, 2010
Im OK, You're OK
This is a non- fiction book written by Thomas A.Harris.This talks about human emotions and his reactions to different type of stimulus created by himself.Here there are 4 types namely- 1. Im ok,you're ok 2.Im not ok,you're ok. 3.Im ok,you're not ok and 4.Im not ok,you're not ok. The first and the last does not arise any problem,as both the stimulus are ok and also not ok.The second and the third has issues as it does not correlate with the respective actions.The chapter Parent,Adult and Child talks about various changes that takes place in the human behavior.Changes from one state to another are apparent in manner,appearance,words and gestures.A thirty-four year old woman came to the author(psychologist) for help with a problem of sleeplessness,constant worry over what she is doing to her children, and increasing nervousness.in the course of the first hour she suddenly began to weep and she said, 'You make me feel like Im three years old'.Her voice and manner was that of a small child.At another point in the hour her voice and manner suddenly changed and she became dogmatic and started behaving like a proper mother.During one hour this women changed to multiple different and distinct personalities.
Tuesday, November 30, 2010
Nandalala - More than a movie
How do i start writing about this movie.It takes Tamil or rather World cinema to another level.This film makes you happier even at the most difficult times of your life.Its a movie with substance.The movie directed by Myshkin,is inspired from a Japanese movie Kikujiro directed by Takeshi kitano.The latter is considered as the GOD of that country in the field of movies.The whole Japan is glued to the Television,even if he gives an interview for 10 minutes.Such is the quality of his movies.This is a journey of two people,a mentally challenged adult and eight year old school boy in search of their respective mother's.The director of this film began penning the script 3 years ago.Since no producer had come forward to produce this movie,it was shelved.The director claims that this movie is close to his heart and that it would be his all time favorite.This story is also based on the director's brother who is a paraplegic.I personally felt that these kind of movies should be encouraged by the audience's.I feel very small to rate this movie.Its a must watch film especially for the youngsters. All izz Well
Sunday, November 28, 2010
RATAN TATA - Man with the midas touch
I just cant stop raving about this man(Ratan Tata).The chairman of Tata sons ltd.He just gave an interview to one of the Indian news channel,NDTV.What an orator he is,just feels proud that he is from my country - INDIA.He is one the succesful entrepreneurs of all time.The concept he came with,the 1 lakh car (NANO) was just astounding.His competitors in the automobile industry were green-eyed about this project and also admonished him from taking up this project.But Tata rebutted his counterparts and went ahead and brought this car into the market and made it a huge success not only in India,but also all over the Asian regions like China,Japan,Korea,Srilanka..etc.Juat felt like writing about him at this time of the hour.Proud to have such a human being in our country....Jai Hind
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