Delegation may be of the following types:
1. General or Specific Delegation. In general delegation, the subordinate is granted
authority to perform all the functions in his department or division. However, the
subordinate exercises this authority under the overall guidance and control of the
superior.
Under specific delegation, a person is given authority regarding specific function or functions. For example, a sales person may be given the authority to collect payments from debtors. Thus, specific delegation is functional in nature. Specific delegation is precise and the subordinate clearly understands what he is expected to do. But it may create inflexibility in the organisation.
2. Formal or Informal Delegation. When authority is delegated as per the
organisation structure, it is called formal delegation. Such delegation is effective
because it leaves no option to the subordinate but to obey the commands of the
superior. For example, a sales person may be granted authority to grant discount
upto 5 per cent on the list price to customers buying goods worth Rs. 5,000 or
more.
Informal delegation takes place when an individual or a group agrees to work under the direction of an informal leader. Need for informal delegation arises due to procedural delays and red tape. When people want to short circuit the formal procedures so as to perform the task quickly, they resort to informal delegation.
3. Written or Oral Delegation. Delegation made by written orders and instructions is known as written delegation. Unwritten or oral delegation is based in custom and conventions.
4. Downward and Sideward Delegation. Downward delegation occurs when a superior assigns duties and grants authority to his immediate subordinate. This is the most common type of delegation.
Sideward delegation takes place when a subordinate assigns some of his duties and authority to another subordinate of the same rank
Monday, December 27, 2010
OBSTACLES TO EFFECTIVE APPRAISAL
The main barriers to effective performance appraisal are as follows:
Faulty Assumptions
Very often performance appraisal is not effective due to unrealistic assumptions on the part of both superiors and subordinates. Some of these assumptions are given below:
(a) The assumption that managers desire to make accurate and fair appraisals is not always true. Many a time they want to avoid formal appraisal. They assume that personal opinion is better than formal appraisal.
(b) Some managers consider the appraisal system as perfect and expect too much from it. They rely too much on it. In reality no appraisal system is absolutely perfect.
(c) The assumption that subordinates want to know frankly where do they stand and what their superiors think about them are not valid. In fact subordinates resist to be appraised and their reaction against appraisal is often strong.
20.7.2. Psychological Barriers
The effectiveness of appraisal depends upon the psychological characteristics of managers to a great extent. Managers' feeling of insecurity, their being excessively modest or sceptical, the tendency to consider appraisal as extra burden, disliking or resentment to subordinates, etc., are the principal psychological characteristics that inhibit appraisal. These factors make the appraisal biased or subjective thereby defeating the basic purpose of appraisal.
20.7.3. Technical Pitfalls
The main technical difficulties in performance appraisal are as follows: (a) Lack of clear-cut or unambiguous criteria for appraisal. (V) Errors and bias in appraisal due to human weakness, e.g., halo effect, constant error, central tendency, liking or disliking for people, etc.
20.8. ESSENTIALS OF EFFECTIVE APPRAISAL
The following steps may be taken to make performance appraisal accurate, objective and reliable:
(1) Before an appraisal system is established, its objectives should be defined clearly. The specific objectives may be pay increase, promotion, transfer, training and development. The objectives will reveal whether emphasis should be placed on measuring performance on the current job or on potential for higher jobs.
(2) The raters should be carefully selected and trained. They must be familiar with the job and the person to be rated. Two independent persons (one immediate supervisor and the other staff expert) may appraise each employee and their ratings may be averaged. This will help to reduce bias and subjectivity in appraisal.
Faulty Assumptions
Very often performance appraisal is not effective due to unrealistic assumptions on the part of both superiors and subordinates. Some of these assumptions are given below:
(a) The assumption that managers desire to make accurate and fair appraisals is not always true. Many a time they want to avoid formal appraisal. They assume that personal opinion is better than formal appraisal.
(b) Some managers consider the appraisal system as perfect and expect too much from it. They rely too much on it. In reality no appraisal system is absolutely perfect.
(c) The assumption that subordinates want to know frankly where do they stand and what their superiors think about them are not valid. In fact subordinates resist to be appraised and their reaction against appraisal is often strong.
20.7.2. Psychological Barriers
The effectiveness of appraisal depends upon the psychological characteristics of managers to a great extent. Managers' feeling of insecurity, their being excessively modest or sceptical, the tendency to consider appraisal as extra burden, disliking or resentment to subordinates, etc., are the principal psychological characteristics that inhibit appraisal. These factors make the appraisal biased or subjective thereby defeating the basic purpose of appraisal.
20.7.3. Technical Pitfalls
The main technical difficulties in performance appraisal are as follows: (a) Lack of clear-cut or unambiguous criteria for appraisal. (V) Errors and bias in appraisal due to human weakness, e.g., halo effect, constant error, central tendency, liking or disliking for people, etc.
20.8. ESSENTIALS OF EFFECTIVE APPRAISAL
The following steps may be taken to make performance appraisal accurate, objective and reliable:
(1) Before an appraisal system is established, its objectives should be defined clearly. The specific objectives may be pay increase, promotion, transfer, training and development. The objectives will reveal whether emphasis should be placed on measuring performance on the current job or on potential for higher jobs.
(2) The raters should be carefully selected and trained. They must be familiar with the job and the person to be rated. Two independent persons (one immediate supervisor and the other staff expert) may appraise each employee and their ratings may be averaged. This will help to reduce bias and subjectivity in appraisal.
STEPS IN THE PROCESS OF PLANNING
There is no standard planning process. Each enterprise has to develop its own modus operandi for planning depending on its size, nature and environment. However, the main steps in planning process are as follows:
1. Analysing the Environment The first step in planning is a thorough analysis of the external and internal environment of the enterprise. Analysis of external environment will help to identify the opportunities and constraints for the enterprise. To be effective, planning must enable the organisation to adapt itself to the environmental changes (market conditions, government policies, technological developments, cultural norms, etc.). Therefore, managers must carefully analyse and interpret the complex environmental forces. It is necessary to collect and analyse relevant information as the quality of information determines the quality of planning. Analysis of the internal environment (resources and requirement will help to identify the strengths and weaknesses of the enterprise.
2. Establishing Objectives. Plans are formulated to achieve certain objectives. Therefore, establishment of organisational objectives is an important step in planning. The organisational objectives should be established in the light of perceived opportunities and resources of the organisation. They should be clearly specified and measurable as far as possible. They should be spelled in key areas of operations and for different divisions and departments.
3. Determining Planning Premises. Planning is done for future which is uncertain. Therefore, certain assumptions are made in preparing plans. These assumptions or conditions underlying planning should be clearly defined through scientific forecasting of future events. Planning premises are the limitations that lay down the boundary for planning.
Planning premises can be of several types. Controllable or internal premises are under the control of management, e.g., resources, techniques and policies of the enterprise. On the other hand, uncontrollable or external premises are beyond the control of the enterprise. These relate to rate of population growth, general economic conditions, government policies, political situation, etc.
4. Developing Alternative Courses of Action. There can be several ways of achieving the same objectives. The various available alternatives should be identified. For example, in order to increase sales an enterprise may intensify sales efforts, explore new markets or develop new products. In order to develop all possible alternatives, a manager must have imagination, skill and experience.
5. Evaluating Alternatives. The various alternatives are compared and weighed in the light of objectives and premises. Each alternative has its merits and demerits but all alternatives cannot be equally appropriate or practicable. Each alternative should be closely examined to determine its suitability. Several statistical and mathematical techniques are used to evaluate alternative courses of action.
6. Selecting the Best Course. After evaluating the various alternatives, the most appropriate alternative is selected. This is the point at which the plan is adopted. Sometimes, the evaluation may suggest that more than one alternative is good. In such a case, a manager may choose several alternatives and combine them in action.
1. Analysing the Environment The first step in planning is a thorough analysis of the external and internal environment of the enterprise. Analysis of external environment will help to identify the opportunities and constraints for the enterprise. To be effective, planning must enable the organisation to adapt itself to the environmental changes (market conditions, government policies, technological developments, cultural norms, etc.). Therefore, managers must carefully analyse and interpret the complex environmental forces. It is necessary to collect and analyse relevant information as the quality of information determines the quality of planning. Analysis of the internal environment (resources and requirement will help to identify the strengths and weaknesses of the enterprise.
2. Establishing Objectives. Plans are formulated to achieve certain objectives. Therefore, establishment of organisational objectives is an important step in planning. The organisational objectives should be established in the light of perceived opportunities and resources of the organisation. They should be clearly specified and measurable as far as possible. They should be spelled in key areas of operations and for different divisions and departments.
3. Determining Planning Premises. Planning is done for future which is uncertain. Therefore, certain assumptions are made in preparing plans. These assumptions or conditions underlying planning should be clearly defined through scientific forecasting of future events. Planning premises are the limitations that lay down the boundary for planning.
Planning premises can be of several types. Controllable or internal premises are under the control of management, e.g., resources, techniques and policies of the enterprise. On the other hand, uncontrollable or external premises are beyond the control of the enterprise. These relate to rate of population growth, general economic conditions, government policies, political situation, etc.
4. Developing Alternative Courses of Action. There can be several ways of achieving the same objectives. The various available alternatives should be identified. For example, in order to increase sales an enterprise may intensify sales efforts, explore new markets or develop new products. In order to develop all possible alternatives, a manager must have imagination, skill and experience.
5. Evaluating Alternatives. The various alternatives are compared and weighed in the light of objectives and premises. Each alternative has its merits and demerits but all alternatives cannot be equally appropriate or practicable. Each alternative should be closely examined to determine its suitability. Several statistical and mathematical techniques are used to evaluate alternative courses of action.
6. Selecting the Best Course. After evaluating the various alternatives, the most appropriate alternative is selected. This is the point at which the plan is adopted. Sometimes, the evaluation may suggest that more than one alternative is good. In such a case, a manager may choose several alternatives and combine them in action.
Thursday, December 2, 2010
Im OK, You're OK
This is a non- fiction book written by Thomas A.Harris.This talks about human emotions and his reactions to different type of stimulus created by himself.Here there are 4 types namely- 1. Im ok,you're ok 2.Im not ok,you're ok. 3.Im ok,you're not ok and 4.Im not ok,you're not ok. The first and the last does not arise any problem,as both the stimulus are ok and also not ok.The second and the third has issues as it does not correlate with the respective actions.The chapter Parent,Adult and Child talks about various changes that takes place in the human behavior.Changes from one state to another are apparent in manner,appearance,words and gestures.A thirty-four year old woman came to the author(psychologist) for help with a problem of sleeplessness,constant worry over what she is doing to her children, and increasing nervousness.in the course of the first hour she suddenly began to weep and she said, 'You make me feel like Im three years old'.Her voice and manner was that of a small child.At another point in the hour her voice and manner suddenly changed and she became dogmatic and started behaving like a proper mother.During one hour this women changed to multiple different and distinct personalities.
Tuesday, November 30, 2010
Nandalala - More than a movie
How do i start writing about this movie.It takes Tamil or rather World cinema to another level.This film makes you happier even at the most difficult times of your life.Its a movie with substance.The movie directed by Myshkin,is inspired from a Japanese movie Kikujiro directed by Takeshi kitano.The latter is considered as the GOD of that country in the field of movies.The whole Japan is glued to the Television,even if he gives an interview for 10 minutes.Such is the quality of his movies.This is a journey of two people,a mentally challenged adult and eight year old school boy in search of their respective mother's.The director of this film began penning the script 3 years ago.Since no producer had come forward to produce this movie,it was shelved.The director claims that this movie is close to his heart and that it would be his all time favorite.This story is also based on the director's brother who is a paraplegic.I personally felt that these kind of movies should be encouraged by the audience's.I feel very small to rate this movie.Its a must watch film especially for the youngsters. All izz Well
Sunday, November 28, 2010
RATAN TATA - Man with the midas touch
I just cant stop raving about this man(Ratan Tata).The chairman of Tata sons ltd.He just gave an interview to one of the Indian news channel,NDTV.What an orator he is,just feels proud that he is from my country - INDIA.He is one the succesful entrepreneurs of all time.The concept he came with,the 1 lakh car (NANO) was just astounding.His competitors in the automobile industry were green-eyed about this project and also admonished him from taking up this project.But Tata rebutted his counterparts and went ahead and brought this car into the market and made it a huge success not only in India,but also all over the Asian regions like China,Japan,Korea,Srilanka..etc.Juat felt like writing about him at this time of the hour.Proud to have such a human being in our country....Jai Hind
Saturday, November 27, 2010
Hi PPL
I know its been a long time since i have last posted.I was busy with my work and studies.From now on i would blog regularly.Have made some changes to my blog...Please do comment on how it is.Would love some suggestions also..Bye for now...TC
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